In CCS, participants completed all three conditions over five days with a maximum of one day between conditions. Training sessions were limited to 2.5 hours because of the cold temperatures. In WCS participants completed each condition on consecutive days. All training sessions were three hours in length. In both studies, all training activities were performed in identical order for the same duration each day. Table 1 Composition of experimental drinks in CCS and WCS Drink CHO (g.L-1) Protein (g.L-1) CHO : PRO [Na+] mmol.L-1 [K+] mmol.L-1 Energy (kcal.L-1) Crystal Light (C) 0 0 – 0 0 0 Gatorade (G) Study

1 66.0 [13.0 – 43.2] 0 – 18.3 3.3 264 Gatorade (G) Study 2 66.0 [59.1- 64.2] 0 – 18.3 3.3 264 PND-1186 ic50 Infinit (IN) Study 1 60 [6.3 – 39.3] 13.3 [3.5 - 8.7] 1.0 : 0.22 21.8 4.3 296.7 Infinit (INW) Study 2 90.0 [80.5 – 87.6] 6.7 [6.0 – 6.5] 1.0 : 0.074 72.5 21.3 386.7 Carbohydrate (CHO) and protein (PRO) content is shown with the CHO:PRO, range of ingestion per hour based on fluid consumption (Study 1) the weight of subjects (Study 2). Experimental drinks CCS and WCS had three different drink conditions, Crystal Light (C) (Kraft Foods Canada, Toronto, Ontario), Gatorade (G) (Gatorade, Barrington, Illinois) and Infinit (IN) (Infinit Nutrition Canada, Windsor, Ontario). All drinks were flavoured similarly in attempts

to blind the participants. The composition of the C and G conditions were consistent between both studies; however the Infinit condition was altered to reflect Sotrastaurin cost the hypothesized fluid replacement and electrolyte requirements of the participants determined during sweat rate testing (INW) (Table 1). The carbohydrate content in the G drink was entirely sucrose. In the CCS, the carbohydrate content in the IN drink

medroxyprogesterone was approximately 60 : 40 ratio of dextrose and maltodextrin with a carbohydrate concentration of 60 g.L-1. The INW drink in WCS had a carbohydrate ratio of 2 : 1 dextrose and fructose. Protein in both drinks was whey protein isolate with 13.3 g.L-1 and 6.7 g.L-1 in the IN and INW drinks respectively. Participants in CCS were provided ad libitum access to their drink condition. To measure the amount of fluid consumed during training, the content of each subject’s water bottles was measured to the nearest 1.0 mL before and after training and the difference was recorded. In WCS participants were instructed to consume one water bottle per hour containing 11.5 mL.kg.-1.h-1 of fluid based on pre-training body weight. At the beginning of each hour, participants were provided with an individually pre-measured sport bottle with their respective drink and instructed to ingest all of the fluid within the hour. Each participant had a secure bottle holder in their boat to provide convenient access to their drink throughout each hour of training.

Cell Line and Cell Culture The human colon cancer cell line HCT116 was purchased

from China Centre for Type Culture Collection. The cells were grown in McCoy’s 5A medium, Modified (Sigma), supplemented with 10% of fetal bovine serum (Hyclone, USA) at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2. The cells were always detached using 0.25% trypsin and 0.02% ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid(EDTA). In vivo Tumor Xenograft Model To ALK inhibitor establish the transplantable model, the human colon cancer cells in logarithm growth phrase were harvested and washed twice with PBS. 1.0 × 107 cells in 200 uL of PBS with a viability of >95% tested by staining with trypan blue were injected subcutaneously into the right flank of each mouse. All nude mice were observed to generate tumors for up to 9 days after the injection. When tumor nodules reached 5-7 mm in diameter, tumor model was successfully established and mice were randomly assigned to the following 3 groups(seven GW572016 mice in each group): (1)normal saline(NS)

group, (2) Ad-HK group and (3) Ad-RhoA-RhoC group. Ad-HK (4 × 108 pfu, 30 ul/mouse), Ad-RhoA-RhoC (4 × 108 pfu, 30 ul/mouse) or PBS (30 ul/mouse) was injected intratumorally at several points four times once every other day, with the accumulated doses of 1.6 × 109 pfu. The tumor sizes were determined every other day by external measurements

with a vernier caliper and calculated the tumor volume and plotted against time [The tumor volume = ab2/2, where a and b are the larger and smaller diameter, respectively]. Ten days after the final injection, the tumors were dissected and their weights and volumes were measured. Then, each harvested tumor was divided into two parts, one was used for detecting the mRNA expression of the related genes and the other was used for immunohistochemical analysis as described below. Quantitative RT-PCR for RhoA and RhoC in Xenograft Tumors Total RNA was extracted from Clomifene -80°C freezed transplanted tumor samples, dissected from nude mice, using Trizol reagent(Invitrogen, USA) and reverse transcripted into cDNA using the PrimeScript RT-PCR kit (TaKaRa Bio Inc., Shiga, Japan), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. To assess the RhoA and RhoC gene expression, we used real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR analysis based on the TaqMan probe method. The probe contains 6-carboxy-fluorescein (FAM) as a fluorescent reporter dye, and 6-carboxytetramethyl-rhodamine (TAMRA) as a quencher for its emission spectrum. The primers, TaqMan probes and PCR parameters were performed same as reported previously by us [18, 19].

The average rate of change in BMD was actually derived as the mean of averages of change in BMD from various BMD sites (femoral neck, lumbar spine, metacarpal, distal radius, mid-radius, and even total body BMD) from all 32 studies. It is known that, for example, the rates of change in lumbar spine and femoral neck BMD are very different due to bone remodeling; therefore, averaging the rates of change in BMD for the two sites can yield a result that is this website very difficult to interpret. Moreover, since the BMD values measured at different sites are likely to be correlated, this average approach is not optimal for estimating the “true”

rate of BMD change. The difference in the rate of BMD change between the calcium supplementation and control groups was modest [1], and the statistical significance was achieved due primarily to the accumulative large sample

size and the absence of within-study variance in the analysis. If AZD1390 solubility dmso the within-study variance had been taken into account, the conclusion of the effect of calcium supplement on bone loss might have been different. References 1. Nordin BE (2009 ) The effect of calcium supplementation on bone loss in 32 controlled trials in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. doi:10.​1007/​s00198-009-0926-x 2. Jones G, Nguyen T, Sambrook P, Kelly PJ, Eisman JA (1994) Progressive loss of bone in the femoral neck in elderly people: longitudinal findings from the Dubbo osteoporosis epidemiology study. Br Med J 309:691–5 3. Nguyen TV, Pocock N, Eisman JA (2000) Interpretation of bone mineral density measurement and its change. J Clin Densitom 3:107–19CrossRefPubMed 4. Hosking D, Chilvers C, Christiansen C, Ravn P, Wasnich R, Ross P, McClung M, Balke A, Thompson D, Daley M, Yates J (1998) Prevention of bone loss with alendronate in postmenopausal women under 60 years of age. N Engl J Med 338:485–92CrossRefPubMed”
“Introduction

Thirty percent of women aged 65 years and older fall at least once Pregnenolone annually and 11% fall at least twice, averaging a total of 497 falls per 1,000 women each year [1]. Thirty-one percent of falls in older adults result in injuries leading to a doctor’s visit or restriction in activities for at least 1 day [2]. There were 15,802 deaths from a fall in 2005 [3], and rates of fall-related injury hospitalizations [4] and deaths [5] are increasing. Falls in older adults are caused by physical and nonphysical factors that contribute to postural instability or an inability to recover balance, such as after a slip or a trip. While some falls may result from a single cause, such as a sudden loss of consciousness or slipping on ice, most are multifactorial. Previously identified physical risk factors include chronic and acute health conditions and medications and their side effects [1, 6–10]. Presence of environmental hazards (e.g., dark stairways and obstacles) and risk-taking (e.g.

At the very beginning, therapists based their work on their previous experience, which was mainly psychodynamic, practicing individual or group therapy. Some therapists could

also rely on knowledge obtained while studying abroad or completing internships in centers where family therapy had been practiced longer. Gradually, after the professional literature was reviewed, training was completed in foreign centers, and cooperative relationships were developed with Yrjö Olavi Alanen (a Finnish psychiatrist whose study titled Schizophrenia—Its Origins and Need-Adapted Treatment played a significant role in the approach to therapy in Poland), selleck inhibitor Professor Helm Stierlin (a German psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and systemic family therapist from Heidelberg University), and other significant figures in the field, the systemic family paradigm was incorporated into the clinical practice of the adolescent unit of the Krakow Psychiatric Department. It is important to emphasize that the person who introduced the family paradigm and working with families into clinical practice was Maria Orwid, along with her team. Within the framework of child and adolescent psychiatry that she founded, family therapy began to be applied and used in various contexts. In 1983, the Family Therapy Outpatient Unit was established. It was managed by Barbara Józefik and focused on family therapy for

children and adolescents. At the same buy CUDC-907 time, family consultations were introduced as a standard procedure in the inpatient adolescent unit, and in 1988, the Home Hospitalization Unit, managed by Ryszard Izdebski, was founded to offer family therapy at patients’ houses. During the same period, in 1978–1979, Professor Irena Namysłowska, a psychiatrist from Warsaw, was trained in the USA at the Department of Family Therapy at the University of Virginia. She was trained in structural therapy by the American family therapist David Waters, who was a student of Salvatore Minuchin, a founder of the approach who was born in Argentina. After returning to Poland, Professor Namysłowska practiced family therapy at the Department of Psychiatry at the Warsaw

Academy of Medicine. Training programs for family therapy were also introduced, organized mainly by the Section of Psychotherapy Nitroxoline of the Polish Psychiatric Association. Professor Namysłowska obtained further training in 1985/1986, again in the US in systemic therapy at the Ackerman Institute. This training was made possible with the help of Donald Bloch, a physician, psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, family therapist, and editor of Family Process and Family Systems Medicine, who introduced her to the staff of the Institute and allowed her to participate in many seminars and training sessions. Upon returning to Poland, Professor Namysłowska once again introduced state-of-the-art knowledge on systemic therapy to the Department of Psychiatry, along with one of the first one-way mirrors in Poland.

Recent

reports based on the ribosomal intermediates accumulated following YsxC depletion or Far-Western blotting analysis of purified ribosomal proteins have suggested other YsxC interacting partners in E. coli and/or B. subtilis. A few are essential for viability (L6, L7/L12, L10, L23, and perhaps L16) while others, although required for optimal growth, are dispensable (L1, L27 and L36) [9, 10]. The L7/L12 stalk (which binds L10 at its base) find more has been suggested to participate in 23S RNA binding and on the recruitment of peripheral ribosomal factors [41]. Structural studies on the topology of several proteins including L7/12, L1, L6 and S5 has led to postulate a role for them as RNA binders probably stabilizing rRNA tertiary structure by fixing the positions of pairs of rRNA sequences [42]. The possible YsxC contribution to, RNA stabilization remains to be determined. Although the bulk of L7/L12 resides within the 50 S region, evidence of its interaction with the 30 S subunit, including S2 has been provided by cross-linking studies (See Review [43]). In addition, immuno-EM observations provide supportive MLL inhibitor evidence for different locations within the ribosome for the L7/L12 carboxy-terminal

end including the 30 S subunit. It is also worth noting that most of the proteins shown to interact with YsxC are well exposed on the surface of the E. coli ribosome: S1 (which requires S2 for binding to the 30 S subunit), S5, L7/L12, L10, L17 [44]. Thus providing clues as to the location of YsxC within the ribosome. Butland and co-authors found YihA (the E. coli YsxC homolog) to associate with itself [28]. Dichloromethane dehalogenase In our study such interaction would not be detectable as only the tagged copy of the ysxC was present in the chromosome. However, our experimental design enabled us to confirm that the YsxC-TAP-tag protein was functional, excluding the possibility of inactive protein artefacts. The interaction we have observed between YsxC and the β’ subunit of RNA polymerase, has also been previously reported for ObgE [14, 28]. Further work needs to be

done to first confirm this interaction in S. aureus and then establish whether it relates to ribosomal or extra-ribosomal functions as reported for L24 of B. subtilis [45]. P-loop GTPases, such as YsxC, show an association mainly with one or other subunit of the ribosome. For instance, Era and YjeQ with the 30 S subunit [46, 47], and Obg, YlqF and YphC with the 50 S subunit [9, 13, 48]. We have shown here that YsxC also associates with the 50 S subunit, a similar behaviour to its ortholog in B. subtilis [10]. Since our co-fractionation experiments revealed the interaction of YsxC with proteins from the small and large ribosome subunits, its absence from the 30 S fraction could be due to lower affinity and/or stability of YsxC towards its partners in that subunit. The specific role of YsxC and other P-loop GTPases in the assembly or stability of the 50 S subunit remains to be determined.

Xiong et al. [10] reported that variations of stress in yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO) GDC-0994 datasheet film resulted in first the increase and then the decrease of J c with increasing film thickness. Similar results are found by Zeng et al. [11]. Many groups have made their efforts to find methods to eliminate the thickness effect of J c with enhancing film thickness.

However, a much deeper understanding of the development of residual stress and microstructure in ReBa2Cu3O7 − δ films with different thicknesses is desired for the optimization of superconducting performance. In the present work, GdBa2Cu3O7 − δ (GdBCO) films with different thicknesses are fabricated by radio-frequency magnetron sputtering (RF sputtering) in order to understand the problems mentioned above, particularly with respect to microstructure and residual stress. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

(XPS) are performed to observe the texture, surface morphology, and oxygen content of GdBCO films. Meanwhile, the Williamson-Hall method is applied to calculate the residual stress in the studied Adriamycin manufacturer films. Methods Biaxially textured Ni-5 at.% W alloy tapes from EVICO GmbH (Dresden, Germany) are used in these studies. The out-of-plane and in-plane texture are 6° and 7°, respectively. The thickness of the alloy tape is 70 μm, and the width is 10 mm. The root mean square roughness (RMS)

is no more than 7 nm over a 50 μm × 50 μm area. CeO2, yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), and CeO2 films are in sequence fabricated on Ni-W tapes by RF sputtering. Firstly, CeO2 is fabricated. The formed gas Ar (97%) + H2 (3%) served as the sputtering gas to prevent the oxidation of alloy tapes. The total pressure is 0.02 Pa. After the fabrication of the CeO2 seed layer, a total pressure of O/Ar mixture gas of 30 Pa is introduced to the chamber. Then the YSZ layer is fabricated. The YSZ (8% ZO2) target is used in the experiment. The sputtering power is 40 and 50 W for the CeO2 seed layer and the YSZ layer, respectively. The growth temperature is 760°C for both the CeO2 seed layer and the YSZ layer. The substrate-target distance is about 50 mm for both the CeO2 seed layer and the YSZ layer. ADAM7 The fabrication time is 30 min for the CeO2 seed layer and 60 min for the YSZ layer. Secondly, the CeO2 cap layer is fabricated. The parameters for the CeO2 cap layer are identical to those for the CeO2 seed layer. The O/Ar ratio is 1:5 for both the YSZ layer and the CeO2 cap layer. The thicknesses of the CeO2 seed layer, the YSZ layer, and the CeO2 cap layer are about 30, 70, and 30 nm, respectively. The microstructure features of CeO2/YSZ/CeO2-buffered Ni-W substrates are measured. The out-of-plane and in-plane are 4.3° and 7.0°, respectively. The AFM image shows a smooth and no-crack surface morphology of the CeO2 cap layer.

2001; Faeth and Saikkonen 2007), (3) the number of non-toxic endophyte-infected grasses exceed toxic ones (Faeth 2002), and (4) in some cases, infection decreased, rather than increased, the herbivore resistance of the host plant (Faeth and Shochat 2010; Jani et al. 2010; Saikkonen et al. 1998; Schulthess and Faeth 1998). Altough well-studied in agronomic cultivars such as K-31 in introduced areas, the interactions between tall fescue and Neotyphodium endophytes are still largely ignored in their native range in Europe (Saari et al. 2010; Zabalgogeazcoa and Bony 2005), probably because

tall fescue is not a preferred livestock forage grass (Niemeläinen et al. 2001) and livestock toxicosis is rare (Zabalgogeazcoa and Bony 2005). The 4SC-202 solubility dmso nature and ecological APR-246 mw importance of the tall fescue–N. coenophialum symbiosis may be different in its native range (Saikkonen 2000; Saikkonen et al. 1998; Siegel and Bush 1996). We examined whether the N. coenophialum

endophyte infection and the origin of the host plant as well as abiotic factors and their possible interactions affect the invertebrate community living on tall fescue. Besides herbivores, fungal endophytes may also affect detritivores (e.g., Lemons et al. 2005) and the natural enemies of herbivores (Faeth and Shochat 2010; Hartley and Gange 2009; Jani et al. 2010; Omacini et al. 2001) or render herbivores more or less susceptible to natural enemies by affecting their attack rates (Benrey and Denno 1997; Saari et al. 2010) and delaying herbivore development (e.g. Breen 1994; Clay et al. 1985; Popay and Rowan 1994). However, there are only a few studies that have considered the impact of grass endophytes on arthropod communities or functional groups (e.g., Afkhami and Rudgers 2009; Faeth and Shochat 2010; Jani et al. 2010). In this study, we used a ID-8 whole-invertebrate

community survey of a controlled common garden experiment to test how invertebrate diversity and community structure, and the number of individuals in functional invertebrate taxa and guilds differs between (i) endophyte infected (E+), endophyte free (E-), and manipulatively endophyte-free (ME-) tall fescue, (ii) host plants of different origin (wild populations from Åland, Gotland, coastal Sweden and one agronomical cultivar, K-31 from USA), and (iii) host plants growing in different abiotic environments (nutrient and water treatments). Based on the past studies on defensive endophyte-grass mutualism (Saikkonen et al.

Glycoconjugates, an important component of cell membrane, are involved in cell growth and differentiation [15]. Fucose, the terminal residue of synthesized sugar chains, is involved in constructing the sugar chain structure of some important growth factor receptors and plays an important role in tumorigenesis [16]. Studies showed that fucosylated antigens expressed in tumor cells are involved in several cellular functions and related to

some malignant cell behaviors, including adhesion, recognition, and signal transduction, and that the increased fucosylated antigens benefit the invasion and migration of tumor cells [17, 18]. Ovarian PF-4708671 mouse cancer mostly has changes of type II glycosylated antigens, such as Lewis x, Lewis y and H antigens, which mainly depend on the α1, 2-FT-catalyzed fucosylation of galactose residues at the non-reducing terminal [19]. Our previous Z-VAD-FMK order study showed that ovarian cancer cell line RMG-I mainly expressed Lewis × antigen, and confirmed that the enhanced adhesion of Lewis × antigen-overexpressed cells to peritoneal mesothelia was weakened after Lewis × antigen blocking in nude mouse experiments, suggesting that Lewis × antigen is related

to the intraperitoneal dissemination of RMG-I cells [20]. We transfected wild type α1,2-FT gene into ovarian cancer cell line RMG-I to establish the α1,2-FT-overexpressed cell line RMG-I-H, and found that the activity of α1,2-FT in RMG-I-H cells was enhanced by 20 to 30 times[5]. We also found that only Lewis × and Lewis y antigens in the type II lactose chain family were expressed, 42.6% of Lewis × antigen in RMG-I-H cells transformed into Lewis y antigen, and that the concentration of Lewis y antigen in RMG-I-H cells was increased by about 20 times of that in RMG-I cells[5]. After transfection of α1, 2-FT gene, while the expression of Lewis y antigen in RMG-I-H cells was increased, the malignant behaviors of cells were also enhanced, for examples, Verteporfin in vivo the G1 phase of

meiosis was shortened, the colony formation rate on soft agar was increased, the growth of subcutaneous and intraperitoneal xenografts in nude mice was accelerated, and the drug-resistance was enhanced [6, 21–23]. Lewis y antigen has dual fucosylations–one more fucose than Lewis × antigen. Lewis y monoclonal antibody or α-L-fucosidase can significantly inhibit the proliferation and adhesion of RMG-I-H cells [6, 24], indicating that the effect of Lewis y antigen on cell behaviors is stronger that that of Lewis × antigen, which may due to the number of fucoses. CD44, an important α1, 2-FT-containing protein on cell surface, is involved in the adhesion and metastasis of tumor cells, and plays an important role in tumor progression [9]. Our present study showed that after transfection of α1,2-FT gene, the expression of CD44 in RMG-I-H cells was significantly increased together with the increase of Lewis y antigen (P < 0.01).

2, but SseD was detected using a polyclonal antiserum raised against recombinant SseD. For the cytosolic portion of SseD, we observed a lower molecular weight form in addition to the protein found in the secreted fraction. The quantification of the signal intensities is shown in Additional file 1. Similar effects were observed for the secretion and partitioning of SseC in strains expressing various alleles of sseB (data not shown). Effect of deletion of SseB domains on formation of translocon structures on Salmonella We have previously observed that secreted translocon proteins

SseB, SseC and SseD were Citarinostat predominantly located in surface structures that occurred in single or low copy number resulting in a punctuated staining in immune-fluorescence analyses [7, 8]. To test the effect of deletions in SseB on the formation of such surface structures, we used immunofluorescence to analyze various strains grown under secretion-inducing culture conditions (Fig. 4). The treatment of cells with lysozyme prior to immuno-labeling allowed the estimation of the cytoplasmic pool of SseB variants Fosbretabulin (Fig. 4A). The staining intensities for SseB observed correlated well with the data shown in Fig. 2. The investigation of surface-located SseB (Fig. 4B) indicated that WT SseB,

SseBΔN1, SseBΔ1 and SseBΔC1 showed punctuate staining of single or low Staurosporine cost numbers of complexes per cell. A more intense and evenly distributed staining was observed for the psseB complemented sseB strain and a strains expressing sseBΔ2. No or only very rare staining for SseB was found for the other mutant forms of SseB. Figure 4 Surface location of SseB variants under

in vitro culture conditions. S. Typhimurium wild type (WT), the sseB strain, or the sseB strain harboring psseB for expression of WT sseB, or plasmids for the expression of various mutant alleles of sseB (psseBΔx) were grown in vitro under conditions that induced the synthesis and secretion of SseB. At 8 h of culture, the bacteria were fixed on chitosan-pretreated cover slips. The bacterial cells were stained with rabbit anti-Salmonella O-1,4,5,12,27 antiserum conjugated with DyLight 547 NHS ester (red). SseB was immuno-stained using rabbit polyclonal antibody against recombinant SseB as primary antibody and anti rabbit Alexa488 was used as secondary antibody (green). A) Presence of SseB within the bacterial cytoplasm was investigated by immunofluorescence labeling of SseB after lysozyme permeabilization of the bacteria. B) For analyses of SseB secretion and surface location, the lysozyme treatment was omitted. We next investigated the function of the various mutant forms of SseB in intracellular Salmonella (Fig. 5).

g., engine improvement, weight reduction, drag reduction), biofuel Rail Efficient train (electricity, diesel) (e.g., regenerative braking system with VVVF) Agriculture Rice cultivation Water management (e.g., midseason drainage, shallow flooding, alternative flooding and drainage), fertilizer management (e.g., ammonium sulphate, addition of phosphogypsum), cultivation Selleck MI-503 management (e.g., upland rice, direct wet seeding, off-season straw), rice straw compost Cropland Fertilizer management (e.g., reduce fertilization, nitrogen inhibitor, spreader maintenance, split fertilization, sub-optimal fertilizer application), replacing fertilizer (e.g., replacing fertilizer with manure-N and residue), cultivation

management (e.g., fertilizer free zone, optimize distribution geometry, convert fertilizational tillage to no-till), water management (e.g., irrigation, drainage) Mature management Anaerobic digestion (e.g., centralized plant, farm-scale plant), covered lagoon (e.g., farm use, household use), biogas use for cook and light from domestic storage, manure treatment (e.g., daily spread of manure, slowing down anaerobic decomposition), fixed-film digester,

plug flow digester Livestock rumination Chemical substance management (e.g., propionate precursors, probiotics, antibiotics, antimethanogen, methane oxidizers), feed management (e.g., improve feed conversion, improved feeding practices, high fat diet, replace roughage with concentrates), genetic (e.g., high

genetic merit, improved feed intake and genetics) Waste Municipal solid waste Biological treatment, VRT752271 solubility dmso Protirelin improved oxidation through improved capping and restoration, direct use (e.g., direct use of landfill gas, electricity and heat generation from landfill gas, upgrade natural gas), flaring landfill gas, anaerobic digestion, composting (e.g., windrow plant, tunnel plant, hall plant), incineration, paper recycling, production of RTD (refuse-derived fuel) Fugitive emissions Fugitive emissions from fuel production Coal mining (e.g., degasification for natural gas pipeline injection, degasification for electricity, ventilation for electricity, ventilation oxidizer for heat), natural gas production and distribution (e.g., use of instrument air, use of low bleed pneumatic devices), crude oil production (e.g., flaring in place of venting, direct use of CH4, reinjection of CH4) Fluorinated gas emissions By-product emissions Thermal oxidation Refrigerants Alternative system (e.g., carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons and NH3), leakage reduction (e.g., for mobile air conditioning, commercial refrigeration, industrial refrigeration, stationary air conditioning DX, stationary air conditioning chiller), recovery (e.g., for mobile air conditioning, domestic refrigeration), decomposition Aerosols Alternative aerosol (e.g., hydrocarbon aerosol propellants, not-in-kind alternatives), 50 % reduction (e.g.