It appears that these phages/prophages have grouped based on the similarity of the components that make up the

tail and tail fibers (Fig. 4b). As these sequences become more distant, the tail fiber similarity remains, suggesting that the BSR phage trees are useful EPZ015666 for identifying phages with similar tail fibers. Future work is needed to investigate whether these sequences recognize the same or different host receptors. In conclusion, while the overall gene arrangement of phage φEf11 resembles that of many other phages of low GC Gram-positive bacteria, there are a number of unique features of the φEf11 genome that set it apart from those of all other characterized phages/prophages. These include the specific location of the scaffold protein gene within the packaging module, and the number and arrangement of divergently transcribed BGJ398 cell line lysis-related genes. The predicted stem-loop operator controlling the switch between the transcription

of either the cI repressor or cro genes that we identified in the φEf11 genome clearly distinguishes this genome from the classic tripartite operator system used by the λ-type phages. It remains to be determined whether any of the other phages of low GC Gram-positive bacteria (in addition to Lactococcus phage TP901-1) use a similar regulatory system. This work was supported by a Grant-in-Aid from Temple University. “
“The 2009–2010 influenza pandemic saw many people treated with antivirals and antibiotics. High proportions of both classes of drugs are excreted and enter wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in biologically active forms. To date, there has been no study into the potential for influenza pandemic-scale pharmaceutical use to disrupt WWTP function. Furthermore, there is currently Vorinostat cost little indication as to whether WWTP microbial consortia can degrade antiviral neuraminidase inhibitors when exposed to pandemic-scale doses. In this study, we exposed an aerobic granular sludge sequencing batch reactor,

operated for enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR), to a simulated influenza-pandemic dosing of antibiotics and antivirals for 8 weeks. We monitored the removal of the active form of Tamiflu®, oseltamivir carboxylate (OC), bacterial community structure, granule structure and changes in EBPR and nitrification performance. There was little removal of OC by sludge and no evidence that the activated sludge community adapted to degrade OC. There was evidence of changes to the bacterial community structure and disruption to EBPR and nitrification during and after high-OC dosing. This work highlights the potential for the antiviral contamination of receiving waters and indicates the risk of destabilizing WWTP microbial consortia as a result of high concentrations of bioactive pharmaceuticals during an influenza pandemic.