1996; Yohe and Tol 2002; Smit and Pilifosova 2003). In our study setting, as elsewhere in rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa, farmers’ rights and responsibilities are highly gendered, thus adaptive capacities are also gender differentiated (Masika 2002; Denton 2002; Food and Agricultural Organization 2006; Demetriades and Esplen 2008). As a result, the adaptive capacities of the so-called dependants that women are deemed

responsible to care for (the elderly, the young and the sick) are also differentiated since they too have limited abilities to obtain and exploit key livelihood assets controlled by adult men (Enarson 2000; Gabrielsson 2012). Our survey shows that in Tanzania women generally have more dependants (elderly Belnacasan and young children) to care for compared to in Kenya. Tanespimycin datasheet Figure 5 illustrates this difference by comparing

the population pyramids for Kunsugu and Thurdibuoro, respectively. Fig. 5 Demography in Kunsugu and Thurdibuoro by age group and sex (source: baseline survey of a total of 200 households, September–October 2007) In Kunsugu the number of children under the age of six is 157, compared to only 58 in Thurdiburo. Whereas a high number of children in the past signified wealth and high status (Gunga 2009), today many farmers, especially women, wish to have fewer children because of the increasing expense associated with them, in terms of health care, food, school fees, supplies and uniforms (Focus groups 2008 and 2011). According to data from focus groups, a common way of ‘balancing’ the household budget in all four communities during times of hardship is, therefore, to withdraw children from school or in extreme cases, as exemplified in Kunsugu, to marry off young females (between 12 and 15) to reduce expenditures and mouths to feed (field data, 2008). The great majority of isothipendyl farmers have identified the problems of the lack of manpower, dwindling food production and declining soil fertility but only a limited number of them have taken action. By employing their primary asset, themselves, and joining hands some farmers are able to plan, save and work

collectively to intensify food production. The benefits of these collective action groups have proven numerous, including more time and resources available for long-term diversification, preventative activities, experimentation and resource conservation (Andersson 2012). However, the scaling up of this seemingly viable adaptation strategy may be hampered by the fact that the existence of and access to such formalized groups are currently divided along gender and ethnic lines, marginalizing some and excluding others (field data 2008–2011). Seasonal pattern of hardship and coping While it is interesting to identify the elements of climate vulnerability in isolation, their integrated effects are probably more significant, albeit less widely discussed.