, 2005 and Rice et al., 2008; Ivy et al., 2010 and Wang et al., 2011). The ability to manipulate early-life

experience in both adverse and salubrious directions provides powerful frameworks for examining the mechanisms for the resulting vulnerability and resilience. A significant body of work has established a molecular signature of the resilience or vulnerability phenotypes generated by early-life experience in rodents. In adult rats experiencing augmented maternal care, an enduring upregulation of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression in hippocampus, and a repression of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) expression in hypothalamic paraventricular (PVN) neurons was reported (Plotsky and Meaney, 1993 and Avishai-Eliner et al., 2001a). The epigenetic basis of the enduring enhancement of hippocampal GR expression selleck inhibitor was uncovered by pioneering studies by the Meaney group (Weaver et al., 2004). Examination of the temporal PLX4032 concentration evolution of the molecular signature of rats experiencing

augmented maternal care revealed that repression of CRH expression in hypothalamus preceded the increased GR expression in hippocampus, and was directly dependent on recurrent predictable barrages of maternal care (Avishai-Eliner et al., 2001a and Fenoglio et al., 2006). These data suggested that the CRH neuron in the hypothalamus may be an early locus of maternal care-induced brain programming. Notably, it is unlikely that changes in CRH or GR expression in themselves explain the remarkable resilient phenotype of rats experiencing augmented aminophylline maternal care early in life. Whereas the GR and CRH are likely important mediators of long-lasting effects of maternal care, they may also serve as marker genes, a tool to study mechanisms of broad, enduring gene expression changes. In addition, determining the locations of the changes in gene and protein expression helps to identify specific ‘target neurons’ that are re-programmed to enable the structural and functional plasticity that underlies resilience. As mentioned above, the repression of

gene expression in CRH neurons occurred early and was already present after a week of ‘handling’, i.e., on postnatal day 9 in the pups (Avishai-Eliner et al., 2001a, Fenoglio et al., 2006 and Korosi et al., 2010). In addition, the CRH-expressing neurons in the hypothalamus were identified as a component of a neuronal network activated by maternal care (Fenoglio et al., 2006). The latter finding emerged from Fos-labeling and mapping studies that queried which neurons were activated at several time points after returning of pups to their mothers following brief (15 min) separations. The Fos mapping studies demonstrated that the maternal signal traveled via the central nucleus of the amygdala (ACe) and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BnST) to the hypothalamic PVN (Fenoglio et al., 2006).